What is a suffix?

A suffix is a word ending. It is a group of letters you can add to the end of a root word*
e.g. walking, helpful

*A root word stands on its own as a word, but you can make new words from it by adding beginnings (prefixes) and endings (suffixes).
For example, 'comfort' is a root word. By adding the prefix 'dis' and the suffix 'able' you can make new words such as 'discomfort' and 'comfortable'.

Adding suffixes to words can change or add to their meaning, but most importantly they show how a word will be used in a sentence and what part of speech (e.g. noun, verb, adjective) the word belongs to.

e.g. If you want to use the root word 'talk' in the following sentence:
I was (talk) to Samina.
You need to add the suffix 'ing' so that the word 'talk' makes better sense grammatically:
"I was talking to Samina".

There are various suffixes we use. Probably the most common are 'ed' and 'ing'.
Here are some other suffixes and examples.

Suffix	Example		Suffix	Example
ed	walk + ed = walked		ness	happy + ness = happiness
ing	say + ing = saying		al	accident + al = accidental
er	tall + er = taller		ary	imagine + ary = imaginary
tion	educate + tion = education		able	accept + able = acceptable
sion	divide + sion = division		ly	love + ly = lovely
cian	music + cian = musician		ment	excite + ment = excitement
fully	hope + fully = hopefully		ful	help + ful + helpful
est	large + est = largest		y	ease + y = easy

NB: Adding a suffix to some root words will change the spelling of the new word. There are some spelling rules to help you learn why and when this happens.

Suffix spelling rules - double letters

Usually when you add a suffix to a root word the spelling of both stays the same:
e.g. care + ful = careful
But there are several important groups of words where the spelling of the root word changes when you add a suffix.

Sometimes the spelling changes because of the 'Doubling' rules.
As always, there are exceptions to these 4 rules, but they are a good starting guide:

1] For most short (one syllable) words that end in a single consonant (anything but 'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u') you need to double the last letter when you add a suffix: e.g. run + ing = running sun + y = sunny If the word ends with more than one consonant, you don't double the last letter: e.g. pump + ed = pumped sing + ing = singing

2] For most longer (more than one syllable) words that end in 'l' you need to double the 'l' when you add the suffix: e.g. travel + ing = travelling cancel + ed = cancelled

3] For most longer (more than one syllable) words that have the stress on the last syllable when you say them AND end in a single consonant (anything but 'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u') you need to double the last letter: e.g. begin + er = beginner prefer + ing = preferring If the word has more than one syllable and ends in a single consonant, but the stress isn't on the last syllable, then you don't need to double the last letter before adding a suffix: e.g. offer + ing = offering benefit + ed = benefited

4] If you have a word ending in a consonant and a suffix starting in a consonant, you don't need to double the last letter of the word: e.g. enrol + ment = enrolment commit + ment = commitment

More suffix spelling rules

'y' to 'i' rule

When you add a suffix to a word which ends in a consonant followed by a 'y', change the 'y' to 'i'. e.g. The word 'happy' ends in 'py'. When you add the suffix 'ness', change the 'y' to 'i' to make the word happiness: happy + ness = happiness. Exceptions to the rule. If you are adding the suffix 'ing' to a word ending in 'y', keep the 'y'. e.g. The word 'copy' ends in 'py'. When you add 'ing' the 'y' doesn't change to an 'i' because you would have 2 'i's together: copy + ing = copying.

Silent 'e' rule

When you add a 'y' or a suffix which starts with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u) to a word which ends in a silent 'e', drop the silent 'e'. Silent 'e' words are ones that end with a consonant and have an 'e' at the end, such as hope, like, love. If you say the word to yourself you don't really hear the 'e' at the end. e.g. The word 'noise' ends in a silent 'e'. When you add the suffix 'y', the 'e' is dropped to make the word, noisy: noise + y = noisy. The word 'like' ends in a silent 'e'. When you add the suffix 'ing', the 'e' is dropped to make the word, liking: like + ing = liking. Exceptions to the rule. If a word ends in 'ce', or 'ge', keep the 'e' if you add a suffix beginning with either an 'a', or an 'o'. (This is done to keep the 'c' or 'g' sounding soft.) e.g. The word 'peace' ends in 'ce'. When you add on the suffix 'able' the silent 'e' is kept to make the word, peaceable: peace + able = peaceable

NB: All these rules also apply to words which have a prefix before the root word.
For example if you add the suffix 'ness' to the root word 'unhappy' you would still change the 'y' to 'i': un + happy + ness = unhappiness

What are double negatives?

A double negative happens when you put two negative words together in the same sentence.
If the two negative words are talking about the same thing, they cancel each other out - so the message becomes positive. This is confusing and it is a major mistake if you are in a formal situation (for example, writing a letter or at a job interview).

Examples of negatives:

Negative words	Negative verbs
no, not, none no-one, nothing, nowhere neither, nobody, never	doesn't, isn't, wasn't wouldn't, couldn't, shouldn't won't, can't, don't

If you combine any two of the above words in the same idea, your sentence will be positive (the opposite to what you intended).

Negative + negative = positive. So only use one negative word in a sentence when you want to say that something is negative.

What are adverbs?

Adverbs are words that tell us more about verbs....they add information to the verb.
(A verb is a 'doing' word or a 'being' word, e.g. 'walk', 'feel')

Using adverbs makes your sentences more interesting.

Any verb you use can have an adverb added.

The girl smiled nervously.
The boy grinned sheepishly.
The light shone feebly.

We use adverbs:

• to say how something happens
  'The family walk (how?) quickly.'
  
• to say where or when something happens
  'I met him (when?) yesterday.'
  
• to say how often something happens
  'She gets the bus (how often?) daily.'
  
• to make the meaning of an adjective, adverb or verb stronger or weaker
  'Dave eats (degree?) more slowly than his wife.'
  

Adverbs are often created from adjectives (describing words that tell you more about nouns) by adding 'ly' to the end of the adjective.
e.g. slow becomes slowly
'Joe is a slow person. He walks slowly.'

Certain words change when they become adverbs. If an adjective ends in a 'y' you need to change the 'y' to an 'i' before adding 'ly'.
Happy becomes happily
Heavy becomes heavily

What are personal pronouns?

A noun is a word that is person, place or thing.
e.g. Brian, the car, the dog, Sunita, London
A pronoun is a word that can be used in place of a noun.
A personal pronoun is used in place of a noun that is a person or a thing.

Personal pronouns for people =	I, you, he, she, we, they me, you, him, her, us, them
Personal pronouns for things =	it, they, them

Why use a personal pronoun?

Personal pronouns are useful because you don't have to repeat words.
They can be used to talk about something or someone that you have already talked about.
e.g. Elizabeth put the coat on because Elizabeth was cold.
This would be better written as:
Elizabeth put the coat on because she was cold.
The word she is a personal pronoun and means 'Elizabeth' in this sentence.
This makes the sentence shorter and more interesting, as you don't have to repeat 'Elizabeth'.

There are two types of personal pronouns:

• Subject pronouns are the 'who' or 'what' the sentence is about:
  I, you, he, she, it, we, they are all subject pronouns
• Object pronouns are the 'who' or what' acted upon:
  me, you, him, her, it, us, them are all object pronouns

e.g. Elizabeth put the coat on.
In this sentence 'Elizabeth' is the subject and 'the coat' is the object.
Elizabeth is doing the action (putting on) and the coat is the thing that is 'done to' (it is the thing that she puts on).
If you wanted to repeat this information later you could say:
She put it on.

Much /Many

The words much and many mean a lot of.

• If a noun is in singular, we use much

  Example:

  much money

• If a noun is in plural, we use many

  Example:

  many friends

Use of much / many

In everyday English, we normally use much / many only in questions and negative clauses.

Example:

How much money have you got?

Carla does not have many friends.

In positive clauses with so, as or too, we also use much / many.

Example:

Carla has so many friends.

She has as many friends as Sue.

Kevin has too much money.

In all other positive clauses, however, we prefer expressions like a lot of / lots of.

Example:

Carla has a lot of / lots of friends.

Kevin has a lot of / lots of money.

In formal texts, however, much / many are also common in positive clauses. This you will notice for example when you read English news.

Countable / Uncountable Nouns

In connection with much / many people often speak of countable nouns and uncountable nouns.

Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural, these nouns can be used with a number (that's why they are called 'countable nouns'). Countable nouns take many.

Example:

100 friends – many friends

Uncountable nouns can only be used in singular. These nouns cannot be used with a number (that's why they are called 'uncountable nouns'). Uncountable nouns take much.

Example:

100 money – much money

Note: Of course you can count money – but then you would name the currency and say that you have got 5 euro (but not „5 money“).

Prepositions

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).

Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on the situation.

There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips).

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:

Prepositions – Time

English	Usage	Example
on	days of the week	on Monday
in	months / seasons time of day year after a certain period of time (when?)	in August / in winter in the morning in 2006 in an hour
at	for night for weekend a certain point of time (when?)	at night at the weekend at half past nine
since	from a certain point of time (past till now)	since 1980
for	over a certain period of time (past till now)	for 2 years
ago	a certain time in the past	2 years ago
before	earlier than a certain point of time	before 2004
to	telling the time	ten to six (5:50)
past	telling the time	ten past six (6:10)
to / till / until	marking the beginning and end of a period of time	from Monday to/till Friday
till / until	in the sense of how long something is going to last	He is on holiday until Friday.
by	in the sense of at the latest up to a certain time	I will be back by 6 o’clock. By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)

English	Usage	Example
in	room, building, street, town, country book, paper etc. car, taxi picture, world	in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world
at	meaning next to, by an object for table for events place where you are to do something typical (watch a film, study, work)	at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work
on	attached for a place with a river being on a surface for a certain side (left, right) for a floor in a house for public transport for television, radio	the picture on the wall London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio
by, next to, beside	left or right of somebody or something	Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.
under	on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else	the bag is under the table
below	lower than something else but above ground	the fish are below the surface
over	covered by something else meaning more than getting to the other side (also across) overcoming an obstacle	put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall
above	higher than something else, but not directly over it	a path above the lake
across	getting to the other side (also over) getting to the other side	walk across the bridge swim across the lake
through	something with limits on top, bottom and the sides	drive through the tunnel
to	movement to person or building movement to a place or country for bed	go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed
into	enter a room / a building	go into the kitchen / the house
towards	movement in the direction of something (but not directly to it)	go 5 steps towards the house
onto	movement to the top of something	jump onto the table
from	in the sense of where from	a flower from the garden

Other important Prepositions

English	Usage	Example
from	who gave it	a present from Jane
of	who/what does it belong to what does it show	a page of the book the picture of a palace
by	who made it	a book by Mark Twain
on	walking or riding on horseback entering a public transport vehicle	on foot, on horseback get on the bus
in	entering a car / Taxi	get in the car
off	leaving a public transport vehicle	get off the train
out of	leaving a car / Taxi	get out of the taxi
by	rise or fall of something travelling (other than walking or horseriding)	prices have risen by 10 percent by car, by bus
at	for age	she learned Russian at 45
about	for topics, meaning what about	we were talking about you

I hope I can help you all with your english as I said before the purpose is to help and be helped

Used to and Would

We use both of these to talk about things in the past which we don't do now or are not happening now. Sometimes both 'used to' and 'would' are OK in one sentence - sometimes only 'used to'.

Let's start with some examples of 'used to' first. We might say,

"I used to live in Manchester, but I moved to London last year."
"When he was at school, he used to play football every Saturday."
"She used to hate her job until she got a promotion."

All of these sentences describe actions or situations in the past, which are finished now; living in Manchester, playing football every Saturday, hating her job - these are all finished now.

We use 'used to' to talk about actions or situations that continued for some time in the past, not for events which happened suddenly or just for a moment. So we can't say: 'I used to have a really good idea when I was brushing my teeth this morning,' because 'having a really good idea' happens suddenly - in one moment.

Now let's move on to 'would'. Here are some examples:
"When he was at university, he would sleep until noon at the weekends."
"My sister lived in Australia for many years, but she would always come home for Christmas."
"I would always forget my homework, until the teacher threatened to punish me."

Again, these sentences are about situations in the past, which are finished. However, it's important to notice that all the sentences, here, are about actions or situations which were repeated again and again and again. Sleeping until noon at the weekends, coming home for Christmas, forgetting my homework - all these things were repeated many times, again and again and again.

This is the difference between 'would' and 'used to' -
We only use 'would' to describe actions or situations that were repeated again and again and again...
But we use 'used to' for any extended action or situation in the past.

'Would' is only good for actions or situations that were repeated many times;
'Used to' is good for any action or situation that continued for a period of time in the past, including repeated actions or situations.

To make this clearer, let's look at the three examples of 'used to' sentences, and see if we can change them into 'would' sentences.


Here's the first example again:
"I used to live in Manchester, but I moved to London last year."

Can we use 'would' instead of 'used to' here?
No, we can't, because 'living in Manchester' wasn't repeated again and again and again. It's simply a situation in the past. Therefore, only 'used to' is good in this sentence.

The second example again:
" When he was at school, he used to play football every Saturday."

Here, we're talking about 'playing football every Saturday'. This is an action that was repeated many times, so we can also say:
"When he was at school, he would play football every Saturday".
'Used to' and 'would' are both good here, and the meaning is the same.

Finally, the third example again:
"She used to hate her job until she got a promotion."

Did she 'hate her job' many times?
No, this isn't a repeated action, so in this example 'would' isn't possible. We have to use 'used to'.